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Cod liver oil supplement consumption and health: cross-sectional results from the EPIC-Norfolk cohort study.


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Type

Article

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Authors

Lentjes, Marleen AH 
Welch, Ailsa A 
Mulligan, Angela A 
Luben, Robert N 
Wareham, Nicholas J 

Abstract

Supplement users (SU) make healthy lifestyle choices; on the other hand, SU report more medical conditions. We hypothesised that cod liver oil (CLO) consumers are similar to non-supplement users, since CLO use might originate from historical motives, i.e., rickets prevention, and not health consciousness. CLO consumers were studied in order to identify possible confounders, such as confounding by indication. The European Prospective Investigation into Cancer (EPIC) investigates causes of chronic disease. The participants were 25,639 men and women, aged 40-79 years, recruited from general practices in Norfolk, East-Anglia (UK). Participants completed questionnaires and a health examination between 1993 and 1998. Supplement use was measured using 7-day diet diaries. CLO was the most common supplement used, more prevalent among women and associated with not smoking, higher physical activity level and more favourable eating habits. SU had a higher occurrence of benign growths and bone-related diseases, but CLO was negatively associated with cardiovascular-related conditions. Although the results of SU characteristics in EPIC-Norfolk are comparable with studies worldwide, the CLO group is different from SU in general. Confounding by indication takes place and will need to be taken into account when analysing prospective associations of CLO use with fracture risk and cardiovascular diseases.

Description

Keywords

Age Factors, Aged, Cod Liver Oil, Cohort Studies, Confounding Factors, Epidemiologic, Cross-Sectional Studies, Diet Surveys, Dietary Supplements, Feeding Behavior, Female, Humans, Life Style, Male, Middle Aged, Motor Activity, Sex Factors, Smoking, Surveys and Questionnaires

Journal Title

Nutrients

Conference Name

Journal ISSN

2072-6643
2072-6643

Volume Title

6

Publisher

MDPI AG
Sponsorship
Medical Research Council (G1000143)
Medical Research Council (MC_UU_12015/1)
Medical Research Council (G0401527)
MRC (UD99999933)
Medical Research Council (MC_U106179471)
The EPIC-Norfolk study received grants from the Medical Research Council (G9502233) and Cancer Research UK (SP2024-0201 and SP2024-0204).